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Parallel Configuration of Power BJT Transistors: Design Considerations and Practical Guidelines

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When connecting Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) in parallel for power applications, it is essential to incorporate emitter degenerative resistors ($R_E$) and base resistors ($R_B$). These components play a critical role in ensuring safe current sharing and preventing thermal runaway. This article outlines the underlying principles, practical design considerations, and the consequences of omitting these resistors. 1. Emitter Degenerative Resistor ($R_E$) Purpose Ensures uniform current distribution among parallel BJTs. Provides negative feedback to suppress thermal runaway. Manufacturing Variations Even within the same production batch, BJTs exhibit slight differences in: Base-Emitter Voltage ($V_{BE}$): Lower $V_{BE}$ leads to higher collector current. Current Gain (β): Higher β results in increased collector current. Thermal Characteristics: As temperature rises, $V_{BE}$ decreases, increasing collector current ($I_C$), which can lead to thermal instabilit...
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Driving a Relay with a Transistor: Incorrect vs. Correct Methods

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I once saw a circuit schematic for a 12V DC relay where the relay was placed on the emitter of its driving transistor. In my opinion, this circuit design was not ideal. The schematic looked roughly like the one in Figure 1 . Why That Circuit Design is Not Ideal 1. High Input Voltage Requirement A circuit with the relay placed on the emitter (whether using a single transistor or a Darlington pair) has a significant drawback. To activate a 12V relay, the voltage across its coil typically needs to be about 75% to 150% of its nominal voltage, which is between 9V and 16V. To turn a transistor (or a Darlington pair) ON, the base-emitter voltage ( V BE ​ ) must be greater than 0.7V (or about 2 x 0.7V = 1.4V for a Darlington pair). Therefore, for the relay to remain active, the input voltage ( V in ​ ) must be greater than the sum of the relay's operating voltage and the V BE ​ voltage, i.e., 9 V + 1.4 V = 10.4 V . This means the circuit cannot be driven directly by a microcontroller, ...
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Hysteresis Circuits, Schmitt Trigger

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In electronics technology, there's an input-output mechanism that exhibits a type of "memory" or hysteresis behavior. This hysteresis circuit is known as the Schmitt Trigger (S/T) , named in honor of its inventor, Otto H. Schmitt, a bio-engineer and electrical engineer, who worked at the University of Washington in the mid-1930s. ( Dr. Schmitt also a co-inventor of the differential amplifier and the chopper stabilized amplifier . ) This circuit falls into the category of logic or digital circuits. A Schmitt Trigger is essentially a Finite State Machine (FSM) with two distinct states. It can even be classified as a type of bistable multivibrator . Over time, the S/T circuit has become critically important because "almost all" (though not all) modern ICs, including processors, incorporate this circuit on their logic input pins. Its primary function is to : "clean up an input signal that's dirty with noise or has ambiguous high-to-low or low-to-hig...
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